(..100) is a Beginless Range and it is equivalent to (nil..100).

Let's see how Beginless Range could be used.

> array = (1..10).to_a

# Select first 6 elements
> array[..5]
=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

# Select first 5 elements
> array[...5]
=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# grep (INFINITY..5) in (1..5)
> (1..10).grep(..5)
=> [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

# (..100) is equivalent to (nil..100)
> (..100) == (nil..100)
=> true

Here is another example where in the case statement the condition can be read as below the specified level.

case temperature
when ..-15
  puts "Deep Freeze"
when -15..8
  puts "Refrigerator"
when 8..15
  puts "Cold"
when 15..25
  puts "Room Temperature"
when (25..)   # Kindly notice the brackets here
  puts "Hot"
end

It can also be used for defining constants for ranges.

TEMPERATURE = {
  ..-15  => :deep_freeze,
  -15..8 => :refrigerator,
  8..15  => :cold,
  15..25 => :room_temperature,
  25..   => :hot
end

Using Beginless Range in DSL makes it easier to write conditions and it looks more natural.

# In Rails
User.where(created_at: (..DateTime.now))
# User Load (2.2ms)  SELECT "users".* FROM "users" WHERE "users"."created_at" <= $1 LIMIT $2  [["created_at", "2020-08-05 15:00:19.111217"], ["LIMIT", 11]]


# In RubySpec
ruby_version(..'1.9') do
# Tests for old Ruby
end

Here is the relevant commit and discussion regarding this change.

Before Ruby 2.7, we could have achieved the same with 2 iterations using select & map combination or map & compact combination.

irb> numbers = [3, 6, 7, 9, 5, 4]

# we can use select & map to find square of odd numbers

irb> numbers.select { |x| x.odd? }.map { |x| x**2 }
=> [9, 49, 81, 25]

# or we can use map & compact to find square of odd numbers

irb> numbers.map { |x| x**2 if x.odd? }.compact
=> [9, 49, 81, 25]

Ruby 2.7

Ruby 2.7 adds Enumerable#filter_map which can be used to filter & map the elements in a single iteration and which is more faster when compared to other options described above.

irb> numbers = [3, 6, 7, 9, 5, 4]
irb> numbers.filter_map { |x| x**2 if x.odd? }
=> [9, 49, 81, 25]

The original discussion had started 8 years back. Here is the latest thread and github commit for reference.

Ruby 2.7 NEWS has listed the spec of keyword arguments for Ruby 3.0. We will take the examples mentioned there and for each scenario we will look into how we can fix them in the existing codebase.

Scenario 1

When method definition accepts keyword arguments as the last argument.

def sum(a: 0, b: 0)
  a + b
end

Passing exact keyword arguments in a method call is acceptable, but in applications we usually pass a hash to a method call.

sum(a: 2, b: 4) # OK

sum({ a: 2, b: 4 }) # Warned

In this case, we can add a double splat operator to the hash to avoid deprecation warning.

sum(**{ a: 2, b: 4 }) # OK

Scenario 2

When method call passes keyword arguments but does not pass enough required positional arguments.

If the number of positional arguments doesn't match with method definition, then keyword arguments passed in method call will be considered as the last positional argument to the method.

def sum(num, x: 0)
  num.values.sum + x
end

sum(a: 2, b: 4) # Warned

sum(a: 2, b: 4, x: 6) # Warned

To avoid deprecation warning and for code to be compatible with Ruby 3, we should pass hash instead of keyword arguments in method call.

sum({ a: 2, b: 4 }) # OK

sum({ a: 2, b: 4}, x: 6) # OK

Scenario 3

When a method accepts a hash and keyword arguments but method call passes only hash or keyword arguments.

If a method arguments are a mix of symbol keys and non-symbol keys, and the method definition accepts either one of them then Ruby splits the keyword arguments but also raises a warning.

def sum(num={}, x: 0)
  num.values.sum + x
end

sum("x" => 2, x: 4) # Warned

sum(x: 2, "x" => 4) # Warned

To fix this warning, we should pass hash separately as defined in the method definition.

sum({ "x" => 4 }, x: 2) # OK

Scenario 4

When an empty hash with double splat operator is passed to a method that doesn't accept keyword arguments.

Passing keyword arguments using double splat operator to a method that doesn't accept keyword argument will send empty hash similar to earlier version of Ruby but will raise a warning.

def sum(num)
  num.values.sum
end

numbers = {}
sum(**numbers) # Warned

To avoid this warning, we should change method call to pass hash instead of using double splat operator.

numbers = {}
sum(numbers) # OK

Added support for non-symbol keys

In Ruby 2.6.0, support for non-symbol keys in method call was removed. It is added back in Ruby 2.7. When method accepts arbitrary keyword arguments using double splat operator then non-symbol keys can also be passed.

def sum(**num)
  num.values.sum
end

ruby 2.6.5

sum("x" => 4, "y" => 3)
=> ArgumentError (wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 0))

sum(x: 4, y: 3)
=> 7

ruby 2.7.0

sum("x" => 4, "y" => 3)
=> 7

sum(x: 4, y: 3)
=> 7

Added support for **nil

Ruby 2.7 added support for **nil to explicitly mention if a method doesn't accept any keyword arguments in method call.

def sum(a, b, **nil)
  a + b
end

sum(2, 3, x: 4)
=> ArgumentError (no keywords accepted)

To suppress above deprecation warnings we can use -W:no-deprecated option.

In conclusion, Ruby 2.7 has worked big steps towards changing specification of keyword arguments which will be completely changed in Ruby 3.

For more information on discussion, code changes and official documentation, please head to Feature #14183 discussion, pull request and NEWS release.

By applying Enumerable#lazy method on any enumerable object, we can convert that object into Enumerator::Lazy object. The chains of actions on this lazy enumerator will be evaluated only when it is needed. It helps us in processing operations on large collections, files and infinite sequences seamlessly.

# This line of code will hang and you will have to quit the console by Ctrl+C.
irb> list = (1..Float::INFINITY).select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?)

# Just adding `lazy`, the above line of code now executes properly
# and returns result without going to infinite loop. Here the chains of
# operations are performed as and when it is needed.
irb> lazy_list = (1..Float::INFINITY).lazy.select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?)
=> #<Enumerator::Lazy: ...>

irb> lazy_list.first(5)
=> [3, 9, 15, 21, 27]

When we chain more operations on Enumerable#lazy object, it again returns lazy object without executing it. So, when we pass lazy objects to any method which expects a normal enumerable object as an argument, we have to force evaluation on lazy object by calling to_a method or it's alias force.

# Define a lazy enumerator object.
irb> list = (1..30).lazy.select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?)
=> #<Enumerator::Lazy: #<Enumerator::Lazy: ... 1..30>:select>:reject>

# The chains of operations will return again a lazy enumerator.
irb> result = list.select { |x| x if x <= 15 }
=> #<Enumerator::Lazy: #<Enumerator::Lazy: ... 1..30>:select>:reject>:map>

# It returns error when we call usual array methods on result.
irb> result.sample
irb> NoMethodError (undefined method `sample'
irb> for #<Enumerator::Lazy:0x00007faab182a5d8>)

irb> result.length
irb> NoMethodError (undefined method `length'
irb> for #<Enumerator::Lazy:0x00007faab182a5d8>)

# We can call the normal array methods on lazy object after forcing
# its actual execution with methods as mentioned above.
irb> result.force.sample
=> 9

irb> result.to_a.length
=> 3

The Enumerable#eager method returns a normal enumerator from a lazy enumerator, so that lazy enumerator object can be passed to any methods which expects a normal enumerable object as an argument. Also, we can call other usual array methods on the collection to get desired results.

# By adding eager on lazy object, the chains of operations would return
# actual result here. If lazy object is passed to any method, the
# processed result will be received as an argument.
irb> eager_list = (1..30).lazy.select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?).eager
=> #<Enumerator: #<Enumerator::Lazy: ... 1..30>:select>:reject>:each>

irb> result = eager_list.select { |x| x if x <= 15 }
irb> result.sample
=> 9

irb> result.length
=> 3

The same way, we can use eager method when we pass lazy enumerator as an argument to any method which expects a normal enumerator.

irb> list = (1..10).lazy.select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?)
irb> def display(enum)
irb>   enum.map { |x| p x }
irb> end

irb>  display(list)
=> #<Enumerator::Lazy: #<Enumerator::Lazy: ... 1..30>:select>:reject>:map>

irb> eager_list = (1..10).lazy.select { |i| i%3 == 0 }.reject(&:even?).eager
irb> display(eager_list)
=> 3
=> 9

Here's the relevant commit and feature discussion for this change.

> (1..10).each { |n| p n * 3 }

> { a: [1, 2, 3], b: [2, 4, 6], c: [3, 6, 9] }.each { |_k, v| p v }

> [10, 100, 1000].each_with_index { |n, i| p n, i }

Ruby 2.7 introduces a new way to access block parameters. Ruby 2.7 onwards, if block parameters are obvious and we wish to not use absurd names like n or i etc, we can use numbered parameters which are available inside a block by default.

We can use **1_ for first parameter, **2_ for second parameter and so on.

Here's how Ruby 2.7 provides numbered parameters inside a block. Below shown are the examples from above, only this time using numbered parameters.

> (1..10).each { p _1 * 3 }

> { a: [1, 2, 3], b: [2, 4, 6], c: [3, 6, 9] }.each { p _2 }

> [10, 100, 1000].each_with_index { p _1, _2 }

Like mentioned in News-2.7.0 docs, Ruby now raises a warning if we try to define local variable in the format _1. Local variable will have precedence over numbered parameter inside the block.

> _1 = 0
> => warning: `_1' is reserved for numbered parameter; consider another name

> [10].each { p _1 }
> => 0

Numbered parameters are not accessible inside the block if we define ordinary parameters. If we try to access _1 when ordinary parameters are defined, then ruby raises SyntaxError like shown below.

> ["a", "b", "c"].each_with_index { |alphabet, index| p _1, _2}

=> SyntaxError ((irb):1: ordinary parameter is defined)

This feature was suggested 9 years back and came back in discussion last year. After many suggestions community agreed to use _1 syntax.

Head to following links to read the discussion behind numbered parameters, Feature #4475 and Discussion #15723.

Here's relevant commit for this feature.

Before Ruby 2.7, we could have achieved it using group_by or inject.

irb> scores = [100, 35, 70, 100, 70, 30, 35, 100, 45, 30]

# we can use group_by to group the scores

irb> scores.group_by { |v| v }.map { |k, v| [k, v.size] }.to_h
=> {100=>3, 35=>2, 70=>2, 30=>2, 45=>1}

# or we can use inject to group the scores

irb> scores.inject(Hash.new(0)) {|hash, score| hash[score] += 1; hash }
=> {100=>3, 35=>2, 70=>2, 30=>2, 45=>1}

Ruby 2.7

Ruby 2.7 adds Enumerable#tally which can be used to find the frequency. Tally makes the code more readable and intuitive. It returns a hash where keys are the unique elements and values are its corresponding frequency.

irb> scores = [100, 35, 70, 100, 70, 30, 35, 100, 45, 30]
irb> scores.tally
=> {100=>3, 35=>2, 70=>2, 30=>2, 45=>1}

Check out the github commit for more details on this.